Is the process through which real or implied presence of others can directly or indirectly influence the thoughts feelings and behavior of an individual?

Critical Thinking Exercise

�    Do you think prejudice still exists in our culture?� Why or why not?

Introduction

�    Social Psychology - the _________________________ of how a person�s thoughts, feelings, and behavior are influenced by the real, imagined, or implied presence of others.

Social Cognition: Thinking About Others

Impressions

�    Impression Formation � the process of understanding and making __________________ about others.

� Primacy Effect - the very _______________________ one has about a person tends to persist even in the face of evidence to the contrary (Anderson & Barrios, 1961).

�Halo Effect - the tendency to infer that a person has other positive traits if you notice a ________________ about them (Feingold, 1992).

�    Impression Management - a persons efforts to ________________ how others will view him or her.

�Self-Enhancement Strategy - attempts to make one�s self _________ ____________ through grooming, etc.

�Other Enhancement Strategy � eliciting a ______________________ or reaction from the other person to make a good impression.

Attributions

�    Attribution - the process of explaining ______________ and why people do what they do (Heider, 1958).

�  Situational cause- cause of behavior attributed to __________ factors.

�  Dispositional cause - cause of behavior attributed to _____________ factors, such as personality or character.

�    Fundamental Attribution Error - the tendency to overestimate the influence of internal factors in determining behavior while underestimating __________________ factors (Weiner, 1985).

Attitudes

�    Attitude - a tendency to respond _______________ or ______________ toward a certain person, object, idea, or situation (Triandis, 1971).

�  Cognitive: the way a person __________________________ about a person, object, idea, or situation.

�  ____________________: the way a person feels about a person, object, idea, or situation.

�  Behavioral: the ________________ a person takes regarding a person, object, idea, or situation.

How Attitudes Form

�    Direct _________________ with the person, situation, object, or idea.

�    Direct __________________ from parents or others.

�    __________________ with other people who hold a certain attitude.

�    _________________ the actions and reactions of others to ideas, people, objects, and situations.

Changing Attitudes

�    Persuasion - the process by which one person tries to _______________ the belief, opinion, position, or course of action of another person through argument, pleading, or explanation.

When Attitudes and Behavior Clash

�    Cognitive Dissonance - sense of ________________ or _____________ that occurs when a person�s behavior does not correspond to that person�s attitudes (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959).

�  Change the behavior to match the ________________.

�  Change the attitude to justify the behavior.

�  Form ___________________ to justify the behavior.

Specific Types of Attitudes

�    Stereotype - a belief (or set of beliefs) about people in a particular category (cognitive component).

�  May be ___________ or _______________.

�    Prejudice - negative attitude held by a person about the members of a particular social group (_______________ component).

�  Racism, sexism, ageism, sizeism, etc.

�    Discrimination - _______________ people differently because of prejudice toward the social group to which they belong (behavioral component).

Reasons for Prejudice

�    In-Groups - social groups with whom a person identifies (�______�).

�    Out-Groups - social groups with whom a person does not identify (�__________�).

�    Realistic Conflict Theory - competition for ________________________ amongst groups produces negative attitudes (Bobo, 1983).

Overcoming Prejudice

�    Equal Status Contact - contact between groups in which neither group has ______________ over the other.

�  Robber�s Cave Study (Sherif et al., 1961).

�    Recategorization - shifting the categories of �us� vs. �them� so that the two groups are no longer ________________ entities.

�    Mutual Interdependence - when groups rely upon one another for a ___________________________.��

�  Jigsaw Classroom (Aronson et al., 1978).

Social Behavior: Interacting With Others

Interpersonal Attraction

�    Physical Attractiveness - very subjective, but still important.

�    Proximity - physical or geographical __________________.

�Mere Exposure Effect - a natural and usually unconscious tendency to grow ________________ of a �novel stimulus� the more often they are exposed to it (Bornstein, 1989; Zojonc, 2001).

�    Similarity - people are attracted to others with ___________________ attitudes, beliefs, interests, and values (Hartfield and Rapson, 1992).

�What about opposites attract?� Initially, differences may seem interesting and appealing, but in time, those very same differences begin to clash and cause friction (McPherson et al., 2001).

�    Reciprocity - tendency to like other people who ____________________ (Curtis & Murray, 1986).

Sternberg�s Triangular Theory of Love (1986, 1987, 1997)

�         Intimacy - emotional ___________________ with the other person.

�         Passion - physical arousal and ____________________.

�         Commitment - cognitive and __________________________ to be and stay with the other person.

Helping Others

�    Altruism - prosocial behavior that is done with _____________________ of reward and may involve the risk of harm to oneself.

�    Bystander Effect - the effect that the presence of other people has on the decision to help or not help, with help becoming ___________________ as the number of bystanders increases (Darley & Latane, 1968).

�  Diffusion of Responsibility - when a person fails to take responsibility for actions or for inaction because of the ______________________ _______________ who are seen to share the responsibility (Leary & Forsyth, 1987).

Social Influence: Impacting Others

Social Influence

�    Social Influence - the process through which the real or implied presence of others can directly or indirectly _____________________ the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of an individual.

Three Types of Social Influence

Conformity

�    Conformity - changing one�s own behavior to ________________ that of other people.

�    Asch�s Classic Study on Conformity (1951)

�  Participants were told they were participating in an experiment on visual judgment.

�  All but the last person were confederates.

�  Participants conformed a little over 1/3 of the time.

�    Stanford Prison Study (Zimbardo, 1971)

�  Social Role - pattern of behavior that is expected of a person who is in a particular social position.

�  Participants were randomly assigned to be guards or prisoners.

�  Guards treated prisoners so harshly that the experiment had to be ended early.

�  Demonstrated conformity to social roles.

�    Groupthink - kind of thinking that occurs when people place more importance on maintaining ___________________________ than on assessing the facts of the problem with which the group is concerned (Janis, 1972; 1982).

Compliance

�    Compliance - changing one�s behavior as a result of other people ______________ or ______________ for the change.

Four Ways to Gain Compliance

�    Foot-In-The-Door Technique - asking for a small commitment and, after gaining compliance, asking for a ______________ commitment (Freedman & Fraser, 1966).

�    Door-In-The-Face Technique - asking for a _____________ commitment and being refused, and then asking for a smaller commitment (Cialdini et al., 1975).

�    Lowball Technique - getting a commitment from a person and then raising the ____________ of that commitment (Burger & Petty, 1981).

�Involves raising the cost of the SAME commitment.

�    That�s-Not-All Technique - technique in which the persuader makes an offer and then ____________________________ to make the offer look better before the target person can make a decision (Burger, 1986).

Obedience

�    Obedience - changing one�s behavior at the _________________ of an authority figure.

�    Milgram�s Classic Study (1964)

�Participants were told they were participating in an experiment on the effects of punishment on learning.

�Participants were told to shock confederates when they made a mistake.

�  No shocks were really administered.

� 65% continued to the final �shock� level of 450 volts.

Group Dynamics

�    Social Facilitation - the tendency for the presence of other people to have a _______________________ on the performance of an easy task (Zajonc, 1965).

�    Social Loafing - the tendency for people to put _________________ into a simple task when working with others on that task (Latane et al., 1979).

Is the process through which the real or implied presence of others can directly or indirectly influence the thoughts feelings and behavior of an individual?

What is the study of how peoples thoughts feelings and behaviors are influenced by the actual imagined or implied presence of others?

Is defined as any way in which the presence of other people affects one's thoughts feelings or behavior?

What do psychologists call the positive effects on performance resulting from the presence of others?