Learning is a relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior brought on by experience.
- Not a �hard-wired� reflex
- Not genetically �pre-programmed�
- It is a flexible way to acquire new knowledge or behaviors.
Three Types of Learning
- 1. Classical Conditioning
- 2. Operant Conditioning
- 3. Cognitive (READ ABOUT IN TEXT)
Classical Conditioning
- Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Produces a response without previous experience
- Unconditioned Response (UCR): Unlearned response
- Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral stimulus that elicits a response after being paired with the UCS.
- Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to CS after pairing of UCS-CS. Similar to the UCR.
- Examples of Classical Conditioning
Factors that Affect Conditioning
- 1. Stimulus Intensity
- The greater the intensity of UCS, the stronger the conditioning.
- 2. Number of CS-UCS pairings
- The more pairings, the stronger the conditioning
- �Taste aversion� is the one exception.
- 3. Timing between CS and UCS
- Close in time is best
- .5 - 1 sec pairing is optimal
- Exception is �Taste aversion�
- Extinction
- CS never followed by UCS.
- Responding eventually ceases.
- Spontaneous Recovery
- CS presented at a later time.
- Responding again occurs.
- Reconditioning
- Quickly relearn a CR after extinction.
- Further evidence of a �permanent� change.
- Higher-order Conditioning
- A CS becomes a UCS to another CS.
- UCS1 = Food
- UR = Salivation
- CS1 [UCS2] = Metronome
- CR = Salivation
- CS2 = Black square
- CR2 = Salivation
- Has gone as high as CS5
- Often found in advertising
- Other �Associations�
- Stimulus Generalization
- Stimuli similar to CS elicit a similar CR.
- Stimulus Discrimination
- Stimuli dissimilar to CS do not elicit a CR.
- Can any association be learned?
- Watson & Rayner (1920) thought so!!!
- Conditioned fear/phobia in�Little Albert�
- His fear generalized to other, similar objects:
- Some CS-UCS associations are formed easier than others
- There may be biological constraints
- Garcia & Koelling (1966) Conditioned taste aversion
- Why is Conditioned Taste Aversion Unique?
- Demonstrates biological limitations to pairings.
- Learning can occur with 1 Trial.
- Often a �long� delay between CS and UCS.
- Not mere association or pairing of stimuli.
- Learning depends on the consequences of one�s actions or behaviors.
- Thorndike�s Law of Effect
- Formed the basis of Operant or Instrumental Conditioning.
- Behaviors followed by positive outcomes will be performed again.
- Behaviors followed by negative outcomes will not be performed again.
- Consequences Control Behavior
- Reinforcement (Positive & Negative): An event that increases the frequency of behaviors that preceded it.
- Extinction: Gradual decrease in behaviors that are no longer reinforced.
- Punishment (Positive & Negative): An event that decreases the frequency of behaviors that preceded it.
- Positive Reinforcement
- When the behavior occurs, a pleasant event follows.
- Reinforcers can also be other behaviors.
- Premack Principle
- High probability behavior can be a positive reinforcer for low probability behavior.
- Reinforcers must increase behavior.
- What is reinforcing for one person, may not be reinforcing for another.
- Two types of positive reinforcers:
- 1. Primary reinforcers
- Stimuli that have inherent value.
- An unlearned reinforcer.
- We become satiated at some point.
- 2. Secondary reinforcer
- Stimuli acquire reinforcing properties by being associated with primary reinforcers.
- A learned reinforcer.
- No satiation.
- Learning Complex Behaviors with +R
- Discriminative Stimulus
- Stimulus that indicates a response will be reinforced.
- Behaviors can�t be reinforced until they occur. What if behavior never occurs?
- Use Shaping
- Method of successive approximations.
- Reinforce behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior.
- Chaining
- Useful for teaching a series of behaviors.
- Reinforce each behavior as it occurs, rather than reinforcing at the end of the sequence.
- This is NOT higher-order conditioning!!!
- Superstitious Behavior
- Schedules of Reinforcement
- Continuous
- Reinforce every time the behavior occurs
- Improves initial learning.
- Extinction occurs quickly when reinforcement stops.
- Partial or Intermittent
- Reinforce some, but not all, responses.
- Better for the maintenance of behavior.
- Resistant to extinction.
- Reinforcement can be based on the number of responses (RATIO) or the amount of time that has passed (INTERVAL).
- Reinforcement can occur after a FIXED number or duration or after a VARIABLE number or duration of responses.
- Fixed Ratio
- Fixed Interval
- Variable Ratio
- Variable Interval
- Which Reinforcement Schedule is best? It depends...
- Fixed Ratio: High levels of responding with a short pause after receiving reinforcement (Factory Line bonus)
- Variable Ratio: High levels of responding that is resistant to extinction.
- Fixed Interval: Lower levels of responding (paycheck).
- Variable Interval: Lower levels of steady responding (beachcombers)
- Negative Reinforcement
- Negative reinforcement increases the likelihood that a behavior will occur in the future.
- When the behavior occurs, an unpleasant event ends.
- This is NOT punishment!
- Special Forms of Negative Reinforcement
- Escape conditioning
- A particular response terminates an unpleasant stimulus.
- Avoidance conditioning
- Responding prevents exposure to aversive stimulus.
- Punishment
- When the behavior occurs, an unpleasant or aversive event follows.
- Punishment decreases the likelihood of the behavior occurring in the future.
- If behavior increases, it wasn�t punishment!
- Positive Punishment
- Something aversive occurs to decrease the likelihood of behavior occurring again.
- Negative Punishment
- Something desirable is taken away to decrease the likelihood of behavior occurring again.
- Effective Punishment
- Analogous to effective reinforcement:
- Punishment should be immediate.
- Punishment should be strong, but not excessive
- May lead to resentment of punisher
- Punishment should be consistent.
- Also:
- Direct punishment at behavior.
- In addition, reinforce desirable behaviors.
- Applications of Operant Conditioning
- Animals
- Child rearing
- Education
- Token economy in prison
- Programmed instruction
- Biofeedback (pg. 576 of textbook)
- What can be learned with Operant Conditioning?
- Learned Helplessness
- Not everything�there are limits due to
- Species-specific behaviors
- Instinctive drift
- What can be learned from Extinction?
- Creativity???
Is any stimulus that decreases the frequency of a behavior?
Negative punishment is the removal of a desirable stimulus contingent on a target behavior that decreases the future likelihood of the behavior.
Does punishment decrease behavior?
Remember that reinforcement, even when it is negative, always increases a behavior. In contrast, punishment always decreases a behavior. In positive punishment, you add an undesirable stimulus to decrease a behavior. An example of positive punishment is scolding a student to get the student to stop texting in class.
What effect does punishment have on the frequency of behavior?
punishment administers an underirable consequence or withdraws something desirable in an attempt to decrease frequency of a behavior. Negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus. This desired consequence increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.
What punishment is when a behavior decreases when a stimulus is removed?
In negative punishment, you remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior. For example, when a child misbehaves, a parent can take away a favorite toy. In this case, a stimulus (the toy) is removed in order to decrease the behavior.