Social Psychology
10th EditionElliot Aronson, Robin M. Akert, Samuel R. Sommers, Timothy D. Wilson
525 solutions
Social Psychology
10th EditionElliot Aronson, Robin M. Akert, Timothy D. Wilson
525 solutions
Myers' Psychology for the AP Course
3rd EditionC. Nathan DeWall, David G Myers
955 solutions
A Concise Introduction to Logic
13th EditionLori Watson, Patrick J. Hurley
1,967 solutions
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Terms in this set (174)
information processing theory
analyzes how individuals encode information, manipulate it, monitor it, and creat strategies for handling it
connection between cognition and the brain is like
a computer
physical brain is the computer's
hardware
cognition is the computer's
software
sensory and perceptual systems are a ___ channel
input
artificial intelligence
a scientific field that focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people
developmental robotics
field using robots in examining various developmental topics and issues like motor and perceptual development, info processing, and language development
effective information processing involves
attention, memory, and thinking
encoding
the process by which information gets into memory
changes in children's cognitive skills depend on increased skill at
encoding relevant info and ignoring irrelevant info
automaticity
the ability to process information with little or no effort
increases with practice
once a task is automatic, it does not
require conscious effort
strategy construction
creation of new procedures for processing information
children's information processing is characterized by
self modification
children learn to apply what they have learned in previous circumstances to adapt their responses to a new situation
metacognition
thinking about thinking or knowing about knowing
ie knowing you can remember something better if you relate it to your own life
micro genetic method
seeks to discover not just what children know, but the cognitive processes involved in how they acquire the knowledge
limitation on processing information is
the speed at which it takes place
speed with which cognitive tasks are completed improves
dramatically across the childhood years and continues to improve in early adolescence
processing speed begins to decline in
middle adulthood
age related losses in processing speed were explained by
a decline in neural connectivity and/or changing levels of dopamine
breakdown in myelin
processing speed is an important indicator of the ability of older adults to continue
effectively driving a vehicle
Attention
the focusing of mental resources. improves cognitive processing for many tasks
people can only pay attention to a limited amount of info at one time
selective attention
focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring the others that are irrelevant
divided attention
involves concentrating on more than one activity at the same time
sustained attention
ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time
sustained attention includes
being on high alert for opportunity or danger
executive attention
involves planning actions, allocating attention to goals, detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring process on tasks, dealing with new/difficult circumstances
attention in the first year of life is dominated by
orienting/investigative process
involves directing attention to potentially important locations and recognizing objects and their features
habituation
decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentation of the stimulus
dishabituation
recovery of responsiveness after a change in stimulation
infants attention is linked to
novelty and habituation
familiar object = shorter attention
when infants habituate to one object they will tend to
look at an unfamiliar object, which shows they can tell the objects apart
joint attention
involves two or more individuals focusing on the same object or events
what does joint attention require
1 the ability to track another's behavior
2 one person directing another's attention
3 reciprocal interaction
joint attention skills are frequently observed
toward the end of the first year
joint attention considerably increases
infants ability to learn from other people
joint attention is linked to
better sustained attention, memory, self regulation, executive function
child's ability to pay attention improves significantly during
preschool years
kung children make advances in
executive and sustained attention
during which years does vigilance increase the most
during preschool years
older children and adolescents do show increases in vigilance tho
2 wats that the preschool child's control of attention is deficient
salient vs relevant dimensions
playfulness
salient versus relevant dimensions
preschool child is more likely to pay attention to stimuli that stand out even when those stimuli are not relevant to solving a problem
ends at 6/7 - less impulsive, more reflection
playfulness
preschool children tend to use haphazard strategies and do not examine all the details before making a judgment while elementary aged children are more likely to systematically plan
a preschool child's ability to control and sustain their attention is related to
school readiness and achievement
processing of irrelevant info decreases in
adolescence
older children and adolescents are better than younger children at tasks that
require shifting attention
heavy media multitasking in adolescence is linked to
poorer memory
increased impulsivity
reduced volume in the brain's cerebral cortex
less likely to delay gratification
more likely to endorse intuitive but wrong answers
in many contexts, older adults may not be able to focus on
relevant info as effectively as younger adults
older adults have more difficulty in attention that involves
aspects of driving, distraction, selective attention, complex vigilance tasks
as competing tasks become more difficult,
older adults divide attention less effectively than younger adults do
how well do older adults function on tasks that involve vigilance?
as well as younger adults
drops for complex vigilance tests
memory
the retention of information over time
helps you connect what happened and what is going on
basic processes required for memory
encoding
storage
retrieval
encode
getting info into memory
storage
retaining information over time
retrieval
taking info out of storage
schema theory
people mold memories to fit info that already exist in their minds
schemas
mental frameworks that organize concepts and information; influence the way people encode, make inferences about, and retrieve info
we _____ the past, rather than take an exact photograph of it
reconstruct
infants can remember
perceptual motor information
implicit memory
memory without conscious recollection - memories of skills and routine procedures that are performed automatically
explicit memory
conscious recollection of facts and experiences
babies do not show explicit memory until
the second half of the first year
improves substantially during the second year of life
changes of the brain linked to infant's memory development
6-12 months maturation of hippocampus and surrounding cerebral cortex and especially the frontal lobes makes the emergence of explicit memory possible
infantile amnesia
when you cannot remember stuff from your first three years of life; starts around 9 years old
what causes infantile amnesia?
immaturity of the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex
significant strides in memory as children grow older?
improvements in short term and long term memory and the use of strategies
long term memory
relatively permanent and unlimited
short term memory
retaining information for up to thirty seconds without rehearsal of the information
using rehearsal, individuals can keep info in short term memory longer
short term memory has a very limited
capacity
short term memory increases
in childhood
why does memory span change with age?
rehearsal of info is important and older children rehearse the digits more than younger children
speed of processing/repetition
working memory
a kind of mental "workbench" where individuals manipulate and assemble info when they make decisions, solve problems, and comprehend written and spoken language
more active and powerful in modifying info than short term memory
interacts with longterm memory
limited capacity system
working memory develops
slowly; linked to many aspects of children's development
autobiographical memory
memory of significant events and experiences in one's life
when do a child's memories take on more autobiographical characteristics?
preschool years
volume of autobiographical memories is linked to volume of self knowledge
as children go through middle and late childhood and thru adolescence, their autobiographical narratives
broaden and become more elaborated
culture influences
children's autobiographical memories
american girls give more detailed, specific, and longer narratives than children in china and korea
factors that influence the accuracy of a young child's memory
younger children are more susceptible to suggestion
there are individual differences to susceptibility too (increased susceptibility is linked to low self concept, low support from parents, mother's insecure attachment in romantic relationships)
interviewing techniques can produce substantial distortions in children's reports about highly salient events
strategies
the use of mental activities to improve the processing of information
includes rehearsing information and organizing and repetition
imagery
creating a mental image to improve memory; using imagery to remember verbal info works better for older children
elaboration
engaging in more extensive processing of information
includes thinking of examples, especially those related to yourself
who is more likely to use elaboration spontaneously?
adolescents
fuzzy trace theory
memory is best understood by considering two types of memory representations
1 verbatim memory trace (tendency of young children)
2 gist
fuzzy traces are
more enduring and less likely to be forgotten than verbatim traces
contributes to improved memory and reasoning of older children
knowledge influences
memory
influences what you notice, how you organize, represent, and interpret knowledge
two strategies adults can use to guide children's retention of memory
repeat with variation on instructional info and link early and often
embed memory-relevant language when instructing children
working memory is an important process and resource for
effective memory
declines in working memory during
late adulthood
can be improved through training (some plasticity) but older adults showed less improvement than younger adults
explanations of the decline in working memory in older adults
less efficient inhibition in preventing irrelevant info from entering working memory and increased distractibility
declines in processing speed and attention could play a role
episodic memory
part of explicit memory
retention of information about the when and where of life's happenings
young adults are better at this
autobiographical memories are stored as
episodic memories
reminiscence bump
when adults remember more events from the second and third decades of their lives than other decades; found more for positive than negative life events
mostly occurs for personal events but can occur with high impact public events
semantic memory
a person's knowledge of the world; includes field of expertise, general academic knowledge, and everyday knowledge
episodic memory declines ____ than semantic memory in older adults
more
widens in middle and late adulthood
tip of the tongue phenomenon
when individuals can't quite retrieve familiar information
implicit memory is ___ likely than explicit memory to be adversely affected by aging
less
source memory
the ability to remember where one learned something
contexts can include physical setting, emotional context, identity of speaker
failures of source memory ____ with age in the adult years
increase
prospective memory
remembering to do something in the future
declines with age - complex causes including nature of task and what is being assessed
age related deficits in prospective memory occur more often in
time based tasks, not event based tasks
what escapes memory decline
semantic and implicit
thinking
involves manipulating and transforming information into memory. we think in order to reason, reflect, evaluate ideas, solve problems, and make decisions
concept
key to infants cognitive development
cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people, or ideas
allow you to make generalizations
early categorizations are
perceptual categorizations
based on similar perceptual features like size, color, movement, parts
when do infants form conceptual categories?
7-9 months of age
birds as animals and airplanes as vehicles even though they're conceptually similar
infants also categorize items on the basis of prototypes, which are
averages, extracted from the structural regularities of items
putting things into the correct categories is an important aspect of
learning
infants advances in processing information through attention, memory, and concept formation is
much richer, more gradual, and less stage like and occurs earlier than envisioned by earlier theorists like piaget
executive function
umbrella-like concept that encompasses a number of higher level cognitive processes linked to the development of the brain's prefrontal cortex
involves managing one's thoughts to engage in goal directed behavior and self control
in early childhood, executive function especially involves developmental advances in:
cognitive inhibition (inhibiting a strong tendency that is incorrect)
cognitive flexibility
goal setting
delay of gratification
learning about a topsy turvy imaginary world likely helped young children
become more flexible in their thinking
marshmallow experiment
ring bell and get marshmallow or wait and get two from the instructor
young children who waited used a number of strategies to distract themselves from the marshmallow (cool thoughts_
increased in ability to delay gratification =
better academic success, cope with stress more successfully, happier, lower BMI
has delayed gratification increased in the 21st century or decreased?
increased
higher executive function =
linked with academic achievement, less ADHD, less depression
who plays important role in development of executive function?
parents and teachers
father's autonomy support
parents middle, support, and scaffold skills
dimensions of executive function that are the most important for 4 to 11 year old children's cognitive development and school success
self control
working memory
flexibility
during later years of childhood and adolescence, individuals approach cognitive levels that
may or not be achieved
there will be considerable variation in cognitive functioning by adolescence
most important cognitive change in adolescence is
improvement in executive/cognitive control
cool executive function
psych processes involving conscious control driven by logical thinking and critical analysis
hot executive function
psych processes driven by emotion with emotion regulation as an especially imp process
cool executive function increases with
age
hot executive function peaks at
14/15 then declines
cognitive control
exercising effective control in a number of areas including focusing attention, reducing interfering thoughts, and being cognitively flexible
increases in adolescence and emerging adulthood
cognitive flexibility
being aware of available options and then adapting to one's situation
self-efficacy
having confidence in one's ability to adapt their thinking to a particular situation; important for cognitive flexibility
shrinking with prefrontal cortex with aging -->
decrease in working memory and other cognitive activities in older adults
working memory aspects that especially decline in older adults involve
1 updating memory representations that are relevant for the task at hand
2 replacing old, no longer relevant information
executive function is involved not only in cognitive performance, but also in
health, emotion regulation, adaptation to life's challenges, motivation, and social functioning
critical thinking
involves grasping the deeper meaning of ideas, keeping an open mind about different approaches and perspectives, and deciding for oneself what to believe or do
mindfulness
being alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible while going thru life's everyday activities and tasks
important aspect of thinking critically
contemplative science
include yoga, mindfulness, meditation, tai chi
cross-disciplinary term that involves the study of how various types of mental and physical training might enhance children's development
two other high level thinking processes in adolescence
decision making
critical thinking
intense emotional arousal is a common state for
adolescents and it affects decision making
what context plays a role in adolescent decision making
social context
fuzzy trace theory dual-process model
decision making is influenced by two cognitive systems
verbatim analytical
gist based intuitional (very important)
operate in parallel
improvement in critical thinking during adolescence includes
increased speed, automaticity, capacity for Info processing
increased content knowledge in a variety of domains
increased ability to construct new combos of knowledge
greater range and more spontaneous use of strategies and procedures for obtaining and applying knowledge
expertise
extensive, highly organized knowledge and understanding of a particular domain
takes a long time to obtain - in middle and older adults
experts do what
rely on accumulated experience
process info automatically and analzye it more efficiently
better strategies and shortcuts for problem solving
more creative in solving problems
what influences the cognitive functioning of older adults?
education, work, health
MOST IMP factors involved in understanding why cohort effects should be taken into account when studying cog functioning of older adults
educational experiences are positively correlated with
scores on intelligence tests and info processing tasks
better cognitive functioning
more complex job =
higher cognitive functioning later in life
some of the decline in intellectual performance found in older adults is likely due to
health related factors rather than to age per se
terminal decline
changes in cognitive functioning may be linked more to distance from death or cognition-related pathology than to distance from birth
changes in the brain with age can influence
cognitive functioning, and changes in cognitive functioning can influence the brain
what in the brain's prefrontal cortex declines and what is it linked to
neural circuits; poorer performance by older adults on complex reasoning tasks, working memory, espisodic memory tasks
functioning of the hippocampus declines more or less than functioning of the frontal lobes
less
patterns of neural decline with aging are more evident for
retrieval than encoding
older adults show greater activity in the ___ and ___ lobes of the brain on simple tasks
frontal and parietal
BUT as attentional demands increase, older adults display less effective functioning in frontal and parietal lobes that involve cog control
cortical thickness in frontoparietal network predicts
executie function in older adults
scaffolding for older brain
involves the use of complementary neural circuits to protect cognitive functioning in an aging brain; engagement and exercise can strengthen brain scaffolding
use it or lose it
participating in intellectually engaging activities buffers against cognitive decline
cognitive training
older adults can regain skills to some extent
fish oil
can help brain functioning
but most dietary supplements do not facilitate major cog improvements in aging adults over a number of years
cognitive and fitness training
includes computer games/ simluations
some improvements in cognitive vitality of older adults can be accomplished
conceptualization of metacognition includes several dimensions of executive function including
planning, evaluation (monitoring progress toward task completion), and self regulation
metacognition helps people perform many cognitive tasks more
effectively
metamemory
individual's knowledge about memory
knowing that recognition tests are easier than recall tests
that short lists are easier to remember than long ones
preschool children have an ______ opinion of their memory abilities
inflated
theory of mind
awareness of one's own mental processes and the mental processes of others
from 18 months to 3 years of age, children begin to understand three mental states
perceptions: by 2 children recognize that another person will see what is in front of their eyes not what's in front of the child's eyes
emotions: can distinguish between positive and negative emotions
desires: refer to desires earlier and more frequently than when they refer to cognitive states like thinking and knowing
the realization that people can have false beliefs develops in most children by which age
5
3 - 5 year olds _____ when mental activity is likely to take place and their understanding of their own thinking is _____
underestimate
linking
not until middle and late childhood do children see the mind as what?
an active constructor of knowledge or a processing center and move to understand that there isn't just true and false but their are multiple interpretations
factors that influence theory of mind milestones
increased executive function
advances in prefrontal cortex functioning
engagement in pretend play
social interaction - parents who engage children in mental state talk
children with autism show a number of behaviors different from other children their age including
deficits in theory of mind, social interaction, and communication as well as repetitive behaviors or interests
adolescents are more likely than children to engage in
recursive thinking - thinking about what other people are thinking about
helps adolescents be better at understanding and predicting other's behavior, feelings, motives
theory of mind abilities decline in
oler adults
related to declines in other cog skills (executive function) and changes in brain's prefrontal cortex
metacognition's capacity _____ in adolescence and early adulthood
increases
important aspect of cognitive functioning and learning is determining
how much attention will be allocated to an available resource and STRATEGIES
by middle age, adults have accumulated a great deal of what
metacognitive knowledge which helps them combat a decline in memory skills
older adults tend to over or underestimate the memory problems they experience on a daily basis
overestimate
important aspect of cognitive functioning and learning is determining
...
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