Drive theories and incentive theories differ in their responses to which of these questions?

1.1  Theories of Motivation

Theories of motivation try to provide general sets of principles to guide our understanding of the urges, wants, needs, desires, strivings, and goals that come under motivation. In the following section we will discuss the various theories of motivation. Theories of motivation include drive theories, incentive theories and hedonistic theories.

1.1.1 Drive theories

These theories can be describes as the “push theories of motivation”; behavior is “pushed “toward goals by driving states within the person or animal. This theory propounds that when an internal driving state is aroused, the individual is pushed to engage in behavior, which will lead to a goal that reduces the intensity of the driving state. In human beings, reaching the appropriate goal reduces the driving state that is quite pleasurable and satisfying.

Motivation is said to follow a pattern that consists of (1) a driving state, (2) the goal directed behavior initiated by the driving state, (3) the attainment of an appropriate goal, (4) and the reduction of the driving state and subjective satisfaction and relief when the goal is reached. This sequence of events is called the motivational cycle.

Drive theories differ on the source of the driving state, which impels people and animals to action. Some theorists like Freud, conceived of the driving state as being inborn or instinctive. And ethologists like Tinbergen and Lorenz, have proposed an elaborate set of inborn driving mechanisms. Learning theorists opine that learned drives, as they called them originate in the person’s training or past experience and differ from one individual to another.

Contrary to what drive theory seems to suggest, human beings often engage in actions that tend to increase rather than reduce drives. For example, people often skip snacks and let their appetites increase in order to maximize their enjoyment of a special dinner.  As we will see in the next section that drive theory, by itself does not provide a comprehensive framework for understanding human motivation and behavior, as motivation can be determined by expectancies also.

1.1.2. Incentive theories

In contrast to the push or drive theories, incentive theories are called “pull theories” of motivation. This theory says that there is some thing in the goal that can motivate behavior. Why would you pursue this course in psychology? Chiefly because the chances are good and that doing so will help you to reach important goals: to gain useful and interesting knowledge, to get a higher promotion, to acquire a postgraduate degree. In short, your behavior is determined by your expectancies – by your beliefs that your present actions will yield various outcomes in the future.

This view suggests that motivation is not primarily a matter of being pushed from within by urges; rather, it is a question of being pulled from within by expectations, of attaining desired outcomes. Such outcomes are known as incentives, and they can be anything we have learned to value- money, status, power, and the admiration of others.

Thus, in contrast to push or drive theories, incentive or pull theories focus mainly on the goal objects. An important part of the incentive theories is that individuals expect pleasure from the attainment of positive incentives and from the avoidance of negative incentives.

Incentive theory has found its most practical use with respect to work motivation– the tendency to expend energy and effort on one’s job for wages, salaries, bonuses, vacations and the like than of drives and their reduction.

1.1.3. Hedonistic views of motivation

This view says that we are motivated to seek goals, which give us good emotional feelings, and to avoid those resulting in displeasure. The opponent process and the optimal level theories theory can be classed as hedonistic theories.

1.1.3.1 Opponent-process theory

According to this theory our bodies have a natural desire for homeostasis. Whenever an intense emotional experience upsets our psychological and physiological balance, a compensating force (the opponent –process) goes to work to restore equilibrium.

During initial experience, the individual apparently has a particular range of emotional responses to behaviour. When this behaviour is repeated many times, the initial emotional reaction diminishes in intensity. Since the individual had learned a certain range of response, the intensity is shifted to the second opposing emotion. Most students in the examination hall appear tense and anxious before they get their question paper.  A few minutes later, the same students on seeing familiar questions appear smiling and cheerful. An hour later they are engrossed in writing the paper and their emotional expressions are back to normal.

The opponent process theory may not be accurate in explaining complex behaviours, however it explains some aspects of addictive behaviours.

1.1.3.2 Optimal level or arousal theory

This theory states that there is a certain optimal or best level of arousal that is pleasurable.  Optimal level theories might be called “just-right theories.”  This theory focuses on arousal, our general level of activation, which is reflected in physiological measures such as heart rate or blood pressure, muscle tension and brain activity.

Arousal varies throughout the day, from low levels during sleep to much higher ones when we are performing strenuous tasks. Arousal theory suggests that, what we seek is not minimal levels of arousal, but rather optimal arousal- a level of arousal that is best suited to our personal characteristics and whatever activity we are currently performing.

For instance if arousal is too low, a person will seek situations or stimuli to increase arousal as on a day when it is boring you might call up a friend and engage in increasing your arousal; or on an extremely busy day when the level of arousal is too high, behavior will be directed to reduce it like switching off your mobile phone to reduce the overload of arousal to which you are being subjected. In both the occasions the individual is motivated to behave in a manner so as to move towards a level of optimal arousal.

There is a close link between arousal and performance. If you are listening to soothing music, a relatively low level of arousal will be optimal. If you are competing in a sports event, a much higher one will be best. However individual differences exist with respect to preferred arousal level.

1.2. Biological motivation

Biological motives are those rooted in the physiological state of the body. Some these motives include hunger, thirst, a desire for sex, temperature regulation, sleep, pain avoidance, and a need for oxygen. Biological motives are triggered by departures from the balanced physiological conditions of the body. When body lacks food or water, automatic physiological processes try to conserve the substances that it is lacking, or it must be obtained from outside. Here the departure from homeostasis or the state of equilibrium creates a drive that pushes a person to seek food and water.

Certain hormones are also important in the arousal of some biological motive states. In lower animals sexual motivation is tied to hormone level unlike in human beings where sensory stimuli are the important triggers of sexual drive. This section will focus on the hunger, thirst and desire for sex motives.

1.2.1 Hunger motivation

Hunger is a basic and primary motive necessary for life. Mahatma Gandhi once remarked, “Even God cannot speak to a hungry man except in terms of bread.”  This conveys that when people are hungry, hunger motivation, or the urge to obtain and consume food, takes precedence over all others. What activates hunger motivation and what stops it, how is food intake regulated, etc.  are some of the questions that shall be explained in this section.

The answer involves a complex system of regulatory mechanisms located in the hypothalamus and liver. These systems contain special detectors i.e. cells that respond to variations in the concentration of several nutrients in the blood. The homeostatic mechanism in feeding seems to be geared to keep levels of nutritive substances or the rates at which they are used, within certain limits.

One type of detectors responds to the amount of glucose, or blood sugar. Other detectors respond to levels of protein, and especially to certain amino acids. This is why we feel full after eating a meal high in protein. Other detectors respond to lipids or fats. If the levels or rates of use fall below a certain point, called set point, hunger drive is initiated and food is ingested to raise the blood levels of nutrients back to the set point.

Complex, as all this seems, it is only part of the picture. Hunger motivation and eating are also strongly effected by more than just internal factors. The smell and taste of food and also the sight of delicious food are also important factors in eating even in the absence of any internal need state.

Although hunger does indeed stem from biological needs it is strongly influenced by learning and experience and by cognitive factors and cultural factors too. Would you happily munch on snakes and dogs? So, even this basic form of motivation like hunger is more complex than it seems.

Cessation of eating – satiety – or restoration of fuel levels after a meal takes hours. But, of course we stop eating long before this restoration occurs. The nutrient receptors, which provide satiety (stop eating) signals is one reason for it. Another satiety signal is provided by the hormone cholecystokinin (CCK). This hormone involved in the breakdown of fats, is released when food reaches the part of the intestine immediately below the stomach.

 1.2.2 Thirst motivation

What drives us to drink? How do you feel when your favourite movie star offers a drink in the commercials that come everyday in the television? Stimulus factors play a very large role in initiating drinking.  We drink to wet a dry mouth or taste a good beverage. Pulled by these stimuli ands incentives, we tend to drink more than the body needs, but it is easy for the kidneys to get rid of the excess fluids. The body has set of complicated internal homeostatic processes to regulate its fluid level and drinking behaviour. The body’s water level is maintained by physiological events in which several hormones play a vital role. One of these is the anti diuretic hormone, which regulates the loss of water through the kidneys. But the physiological mechanisms involved in maintaining the body’s water level are not directly involved in thirst motivation and drinking.

Thirst motivation and drinking are mainly triggered by two conditions of the body: loss of water from the cells and reduction of blood volume. The idea of loss of water from the cells (cellular dehydration) and reduction of blood volume (hypovolemia) that contributes to thirst and drinking is called the double-depletion hypothesis. Receptors in the stomach and intestine seem to be responsible in monitoring the water balance in the body leading to satiety.

1.2.3 Sexual Motivation

When you gaze at the hoardings in any city you have visited or even in your own city, the countless signs, billboards and advertisements are focused mostly on two topics: food and sex. We have dealt with hunger previously and now we focus on sexual motivation.  Since sexual behavior depends, in part, on physiological conditions, it may be considered as a biological motivation. But of course sex is far more than a biological drive. Sexual motivation is also social because it involves other people and is regulated by social pressures and religious beliefs. Sex is physiological in the sense it is an important part of our emotional lives.

The onset of puberty involves rapid increases in the activity of the glands, or gonads. Secondary sexual characteristics develop under the influence of these sex hormones. But can these hormones influence sexual motivation? In most organisms other than human beings, the answer is yes. Sex hormones exert what are usually termed as activational effects. For example during the reproductive cycle females of many species come into what is called as estrus or ‘heat’ and will actively engage in sexual behavior.

Other chemical substances within the body may play more direct roles.  Recent findings suggest that when human beings are sexually attracted to another person, their brain produces increased amounts of several substances that are related to amphetamines (stimulants) leading to strong sexual attraction.

In addition there are substances produced by our bodies that do play an important role in sex motivation. Cognitive factors as our thoughts, fantasies, and memories play a very powerful role in sexual motivation.

But what precisely stimulates arousal?  Firstly, direct physical contacts generate arousal. Second, naturally occurring odors can also stimulate sexually. Many people respond strongly to erotic verbal descriptions of sexual behavior. Much sexual behavior is “turned on” by stimuli which act as incentives. Thus hormonally ready humans are sexually aroused, by others’ looks, what other people say, their style, their voices, the way they dress and their odour.

1.3 Social motivation

Social motives are the complex motive states that are learned in social groups, especially in the family as children grow up. They are called social because they usually involve other people. These human motives can be looked upon as general states that lead to much particular behaviours. Not only do they help to determine much of what a person does, they persist, and are never fully satisfied, over the years. Even as one goal is reached than the motive is directed toward another one. Social motives are persisting characteristics of a person and since they are learned, their strength differs greatly from one individual to another. Different social motives include the need for achievement, need for power and aggression

Psychologists measure social motives through the use of

• Projective tests that study themes of imagined action. These tests are based on the idea that people read their own feelings and needs into ambiguous or unstructured material. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is one projective technique used to assess social motives.
• Pencil-and-paper questionnaires or inventories containing questions about what a person does or prefers to do.
• Observations of actual behaviour in certain types of situations designed to bring out the expression of social motives. Children’s aggressiveness can be measured by letting them play with dolls and observing the number of aggressive responses they make.

1.3.1 Achievement motivation

McClelland had studied on need for achievement. People in whom the need for achievement is strong seek to become accomplished and improve their performance. They are task oriented and perform to work on tasks that are challenging and on which their performances can be evaluated in some way. Achievement motivation is the desire to meet the standards of excellence – to out perform others and accomplish difficult tasks. Achievement motivation can be seen in many areas of human endeavour – on the job, in school, in home making or in athletic competition.

Since social motives are mostly learnt, the differences in early life experiences may most often lead to variations in the amount of achievement motivation. Therefore persons with high or low motivation have contrasting life experience.  Even as children they learn by copying the behaviour of their parents and other important people who serve as models. Through such observational learning children taken on, or adopt many characteristics of the model.

It is often puzzling why persons high in achievement motivation prefer situations involving moderate levels of risk or difficulty, than to ones that are low or very high on these dimensions. The answer seems to lie in the fact that in situations involving moderate risk or difficulty there is not only a good chance of success, but there is also sense of challenge. In contrast, in situations that are very high in risk or difficult, failure is likely – and high achievement persons dislike failure intensely. And situations that are very low in risk or difficulty fail to provide the challenge those persons with high in achievement motivation relish. Thus people with high need for achievement are likely to be realistic in the tasks, jobs and vocations they select.  Such people like tasks in which their performance can be compared with that of others and like feedback on how they are doing. They also tend to be persistent in working on tasks they perceive as career related or as reflecting those personal characteristics (such as intelligence), which are involved in getting ahead.

Matina Horner (1968) proposed another motive called fear of success to explain women’s expression of the need for achievement. She found that women believed their successful performance would have negative consequences such as unpopularity and reduced feeling of femininity. However with changes in beliefs of sex roles in recent years, fewer women now evidence a strong fear of success motivation.

1.3.2 Power Motivation

What are your opinions about the US military tactics in Iraq and Afghanistan? Is it a need to control and dominate? Is it to have supremacy over the others? These questions have answers in the definition of power motivation. Power Motivation is a desire to be in charge, to have status and prestige and influence others (Winter, 1973).  The goals of power motivation are to influence, control, cajole, persuade, lead or charm others so as to enhance one’s own reputation in the eyes of other people. People with strong power motivation derive satisfaction from achieving their goals.

Power motivation can be expressed in many ways; the manner of expression depends greatly on the person’s socio-economic status, sex, level of maturity, and the degree to which the individual fears his or her own power motivation. The following are some of the ways in which people of high power motivation express themselves

• By impulsive and aggressive actions, especially by men in lower socioeconomic brackets
• By participation in competitive sports like hockey, baseball, football especially by men in lower socioeconomic brackets and by men in college.
• By joining organizations and holding office in these organizations
• Among men, by drug abuse and sexual coercion in dominating women.
• By obtaining and collecting possessions, such as fancy cars, guns, numerous credit cards
• By associating with people who are not quite popular with others and can easily be controlled by the high need for power person because they depend on him for friendship.
• By choosing occupations such as teaching, diplomacy, business and the clergy –occupations in which people believe they have a chance to have an impact on others
• By building and disciplining their bodies, which is characteristic of women with strong power motivation.

1.3.3 Aggression motivation

The issues of war, murder, child abuse that we come across in newspapers every day are acts of violence and suggest aggressive motivation – the desire to inflict harm on others. Aggressive motivation often results in overt forms of behaviour, directed toward the goal of injuring another living being.

Freud believed that human beings possess a powerful built in tendency to harm others and that it is part of “the nature of the beast”. We are said to share an aggressive instinct with lower animals. Thus human aggression is said to be a species typical-behaviour.  The implications of this view is that since humans are by nature aggressive creatures, fights, wars, and destruction have been and will continue to be a major part of the human story.

While it is true that expression of aggression is related to the levels of certain hormones (testosterone) regulated by the brain, present day psychologists however believe that aggression, like other forms of motivation is elicited by a wide range of external events and stimuli. In other words, it is often pulled from without rather than pushed from within.

Frustration of motive is often seen as the basis of aggression. Frustration occurs when motivated behaviour is thwarted or blocked so that goals are not reached. The frustration–aggression hypothesis proposed by Miller and Dollard stated that frustration always results in aggressive behaviour.

On the contrary to this hypothesis, we see people becoming depressed or resigned in their attitude or consume alcohol or drugs or withdraw from situations or on a more positive note increase their efforts to overcome frustration. These sorts of behaviours suggest that frustration is only one of many different factors that elicit aggression. And frustration seems to result in aggression only when the thwarting of expectation is unexpected and is perceived as unjustified i.e. when frustration is perceived as an arbitrary action. The most common, everyday source of aggression is verbal insult or negative evaluation from another person.

Many social, environmental, personal factors have been found to increase the likelihood or intensity of aggression. Some other important causes of human aggression are compliance with an authority, unpleasant environmental conditions such as high temperatures, intense noise, and under some conditions, crowding.

Social learning theory stresses the role of imitation of others’ behaviour as one of the causes of aggression. Modeling is most effective if the aggressive behaviour is seen as being both justified and achieving a reward. Television and films are replete with models of aggression and many studies have contributed to the findings of violent and aggressive behaviours being modeled on characters. In addition to social learning, classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning can be important sources of human aggression.

Classical conditioning occurs when certain stimuli or situations are paired with each other. An individual behaves in an aggressive way towards many similar stimuli when he generalizes the stimuli. Instrumental conditioning of aggression occurs when people are rewarded or reinforced for their aggressive behaviour. When aggression “pays off”- it may become a habitual response in many situations.

Punishment for aggression has been one of the classic approaches to the control of human aggression. Punishment may not however be effective as usually thought. When punishment is used ineffectively, it may in fact, increase aggressive tendencies. Punishment seems to work best when it is strong and when the person perceives the punishment as being legitimate and appropriate.

Another classic approach to the reduction of anger and aggression is “catharsis”. Catharsis refers to the venting of an emotion or ‘getting it out of one’s system’. Another interesting approach to the control of aggression is based on the notion that certain emotions and feelings are incompatible with anger and aggression. Thus anger may disappear when a person is induced to smile, feels empathic or perhaps is mildly sexually aroused.

1.4. Motives to Know and To Be Effective

Some of the most powerful and persistent motives of all in human beings are motives to seek variety in stimulation, to process information about the world around us, to explore, and to be effective in mastering challenges from the world.

These motives to seek novelty and exploration exist even in childhood and the need to be effective persists throughout life.  Despite biological needs and social needs being met there is an endeavor “to strive to seek and to explore” and this enterprise is a restless and relentless activity. These needs tend to exist to some degree or other in everyone and are considered innate. The motives to know and to be effective include stimulus and exploration needs, Effectance motivation and self-actualization motivation.

Even as children there is an innate need to explore and find out and as adults we engage in several activities like visiting new places, reading books and magazines to know about several things or simply watch television movies, sport contests and plays. Stimulus needs and the need to explore are largely behind these activities. We also get “tired of doing the same old thing”. In other words, we are seeking novelty. Some people are sensation seekers and are prone to search for exciting stimuli and sensations. Though not sensation seekers most of us have a need to seek new or novel stimuli.

According to one influential theory by Berlyne, stimuli from the environment arouse all of us, and each of us has optimal arousal, which we seek. Being at optimal arousal level is pleasurable; too high or low level of arousals result in feelings of displeasure. Moderately novel and complex stimuli are especially good at increasing the arousal level toward the optimal. Novel stimuli are those that are different from what we expect; and complex stimuli are those that contain great amount of information for us to process and reach to our level of arousal.

A general motive to act competently and effectively when interacting with the environment is called effectance motivation. Even though goals are reached, effectance motivation is not satisfied; it remains to urge behaviour toward new competencies and masteries. A concept somewhat like Effectance motivation is intrinsic motivation defined as “a person’s need for feeling competent and self–determining in dealing with his environment”. In intrinsic motivation the goals are internal feelings of effectiveness, competence and self-determination.

In addition those who derive pleasure from doing certain activities excel when they are given external rewards. External rewards are those that create extrinsic motivation and are directed towards goals such as money, or grades in school.

The motive for self-actualization as defined by Maslow is related to effectance motivation and intrinsic motivation. Self-actualization refers to an individual’s need to develop his or her potentialities; in other words, to do what he or she is capable of doing. “Self-actualizers” then are people who make the fullest use of their capabilities.

According to Maslow’s need hierarchy the need for self-actualization is the highest need that can be satisfied and varies from one individual to another. Only when all other needs are met will a person be satisfying the need for realizing his or her potentialities or actualizing.

1.5 Frustration and Conflict of Motives

The course of motivation does not run smoothly. The term frustration refers to the blocking of behaviour directed toward a goal. People who cannot achieve their important goals feel depressed, fearful, anxious, guilty, or angry. Often they are simply unable to derive ordinary pleasure from living.

1.5.1. Sources of frustration

The causes of frustration can be found in

• Environmental forces that block motive fulfillment,
• Personal inadequacies that make it impossible to reach goals, and
• Conflicts between and among motives.

An environmental obstacle may be something physical, such as lack of money. Or it may be people- parents, teachers or police officers or anyone   who prevents us from achieving our goal. There are some goals that cannot be achieved because they are beyond a person’s abilities. People are frustrated when they have goals beyond their capacity to perform.

Another major source of frustration is formed in motivational conflict, in which the expression of one motive interferes with the expression of other motives. In expressing aggression people like to give vent to their rage but at the same time fear the social disapproval. Aggression thus is in conflict with the need for social approval. Other common conflicts are between independence and affiliation needs or career aspirations and economic realities. Life is full of conflicts and the frustration arising from them.

1.5.2 Types of Conflict

The most persistent and deep-seated frustration in many individuals is motivational conflict. This kind of frustration can be the most important in determining a person’s anxieties, or “hang-ups”. On analysis it seems that frustration can arise from three major conflicts, which have been called approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, and approach-avoidance.

1.5.2.1 Approach-Approach Conflict

An approach-approach conflict is a conflict between two positive goals – goals that are equally attractive at the same time. For example a conflict may arise when a person wants to watch a movie and also meet his friends at the same time. Such conflicts are usually resolved by satisfying first one goal and then the other when there is conflict between two positive goals. Compared with conflict situations, approach-approach conflicts are usually easy to resolve and generate little emotional behaviour.

1.5.2.2 Avoidance-Avoidance conflict

A second type of conflict, avoidance-avoidance involves two negative goals and is fairly common experience. A child who is weak in arithmetic must do his homework or get a spanking. A woman must work at a job she intensely dislikes or take the chance of losing her income. Such conflicts are capsuled in the saying “caught between the devil and deep blue sea”. We can all think of things we do not want to do but must do or face between less desirable alternatives.

Two kinds of behaviours are usually noticed in avoidance-avoidance conflicts. One is vacillation of behaviour and thought – people are inconsistent in what they do and think; they do first one thing and then another. Vacillation occurs because the strength of a goal increases as the person nears it. As one of the negative goals is approached, the person finds it increasingly repellent and consequently retreats or withdraws from it. But when this done, the person comes closer to the other negative goal and finds it increasingly repellent and consequently retreats or withdraws from it.

A second behavioural feature of this kind of conflict is an attempt to leave the conflict situation. A person can escape from an avoidance-avoidance conflict by running away- and people do, indeed try this.  For instance, a boy who does not want to study or get a beating at home, might think of running away from home. But the consequences of running away are even worse than his other alternatives.

People in avoidance-avoidance conflicts may try a different means of running away. They conjure an imaginary world where there are no conflicts or recreate in their minds the carefree world of their childhood. This process of leaving the conflict situation is called regression.

1.5.2.3. Approach-Avoidance Conflict

The third type of conflict, approach-avoidance conflict is the most difficult to resolve because, in this type of conflict, a person is both attracted and repelled by the same goal object. Because of the positive valence of the goal, the person approaches it; but as it is approached, the negative valence becomes stronger. People in this conflict often vacillate until the negative valence becomes too strong, and then they back from it. Often however, the negative valence is not repellent enough to stop the behaviour.

In such cases, people reach the goal much more slowly and hesitatingly than they would have without the negative valence; and until the goal is reached, there is frustration. Even after the goal is reached, an individual may feel uneasy because of the negative valence attached to it. Emotional reactions such as anger and resentment commonly accompany approach-avoidance conflicts.

1.5.2.4 Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflicts

Many of life’s chief decisions involve multiple approach-avoidance conflicts, meaning that numerous goals with positive and negative valences are involved. Suppose a woman is engaged and marriage has a positive valence for her because of the stability it provides and because she loves the man she will be marrying. Suppose on the other hand marriage is repellent to her because that will mean giving up an attractive offer of a job in another city. With respect for her career, the woman is attracted to the new job but also repelled by the problems it will create for her marriage.

There is conflict wherein the girl after a good deal of vacillation would break the engagement if the sum total of the positive career valence minus the negative career valence is greater than that for positive and negative valences associated with marriage. Or if the overall sum of the marriage valences is greater than that of career ones, she might hesitate for a while, vacillating back and forth, and get married.

These valences, which are obstacles to reaching a goal, are generally internalized. Such internalizing in social values is the result of training in social values. The more internalized obstacles are the social values, which make up conscience. Internal obstacles are harder to deal with than the environmental ones as there are emotional reactions generated within that which are difficult to resolve.

1.6 Summary

Theories of motivation include drive theories, incentive theories, the opponent process theory and optimal-level theories

Biological motives such as hunger, thirst and sex have their origin in the physiological state of body. These motives can be aroused by the departures from the balanced or homeostatic levels of bodily processes, by certain hormones or by sensory stimuli.

Social motives such as need for achievement need for power and much of human aggression are learned motives that involve other people. They are measured by projective tests, pencil and –paper questionnaires or by inferences made from actual behavior in certain situations.

While it has biological basis, human aggression is primarily under the control of social factors. Social learning, classical conditioning, and instrumental conditioning are ways in which the tendency to aggress against others may be learned. Under some conditions, the presence of non-aggressive models, or the induction of responses that are incompatible with aggression may serve to lessen aggressive behaviour.

Motives are often blocked or frustrated. The major sources of frustration are environmental factors, personal factors, or conflict.

There are four types of conflict: approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance and multiple approach-avoidance conflict. In each of these conflicts, attainment of goal is hindered leading to various emotional and behavioral reactions.

How does the incentive theory differ from the drive reduction theory?

How does incentive motivation differ from drive?

Which of the following best describes the drive reduction theory of motivation?

What is incentive theory quizlet?